21st Century Jerusalem

In the 21st century, Israel made peace with Egypt but was only able to maintain a temporary peace with Lebanon due to a change in the rulers, and was not able to convince Syria to make peace. Regardless, Israel's efforts of peace and its lack of acting on terrorist attacks were noticed and appreciated throughout the Western World. Specifically, they were encouraged by the United States. In the year 2000, Israel withdraws from southern Lebanon, which is shortly followed by Ariel Sharon's strolling around the Temple Mount and the subsequent Second Intifada. September 11, 2001 changed everything as the U.S., a huge supporter of Israeli peace and the most powerful country in the world, responded to terrorist attacks by practically wiping out two countries. After this reaction, Israel stated that if they were bombed or attacked, they would react in a similar manner. In 2002, Israel began construction on the West Bank Barrier, a barrier not officially recognized by the 1947 UN boundary, but based on the 1992 boundary.

Israelis argue that the Western Wall is necessary to keep dangerous Palestinians from coming across. The Palestinians argue that the wall promotes segregation and is incredibly inconvenient for those who work or have daily activities on the other side of the wall. In 2004, Yassar Araft dies and in 2006 Hamas defeats Fatah (Arafat's group) in the Palestinian Elections. Hamas does not know how to rule and is very prone to picking fights with the Israelis. No countries want to see Hamas as a legitimate government so they receive no foreign aid and are completely blocked out of Israel. In 2007 the "Palestinian Civil War" occurs as Hamas takes control of the Gaza and Fatah controls the West Bank. In 2010, Israel announces new housing settlements in East Jerusalem, Palestine's area. The future of Jerusalem is largely unpredictable. Many hope for peace, some claim its impossible. Many say it will become an actual international city, while others claim that a two or three-state solution is coming.

20th Century Jerusalem

The twentieth century began with a development  of secular zionism, or the notion for a Jewish state but not strictly one filled with super religious Jews. This vision is often attributed to Theodore Herzl. Due to the rising of Jewish pride coupled with Jewish success, resentment in first Catholic and later Muslim communities began to arise. With World War I, Jerusalem became the headquarters for the VII Turkish corps, causing controversy with the Armenian quarter within Jerusalem. The end of World War I brought the  British Mandate Period from 1918-1948, when the English and the French divided the Palestine and the surrounding areas in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. The Balfour Declaration then established Palestine as a national home for Jewish people, a quite support of the notion of zionism. However, this ambiguity behind the purpose of the Balfour Declaration soon led to Churchill's "White Paper" which attempted to clarify the idea of Palestine to both Jews and Muslims. This clarification backfired and further confusion and violence led to the Peel Commission of 1937, which partitioned a two-state solution with Jerusalem as an international city.

As conflicts continued, the British were being attacked by the Jews and decided to end the British Mandate in the War of Independence (1948). During this time, the Jews were an armed paramilitary group not part of a recognized state, so the question begs whether or not most people considered them to be terrorists. To the East, King Abdullah of Jordan made a stride towards peace, which was quickly shot down by his son, King Hussein. In the Six-Day War, Egyptian and Jordanian forces attempted a surprise attack on Israel, which was pre-empted with an Israeli force. Intifadas or "uprisings" began in the 80's. Just when the regions were closer to obtaining peace, Israeli prime minister Ariel Sharon took a stroll around the Temple Mount, which was highly prohibited and provoked another intifada. Prior to this, the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organization) developed as the sole representation of the Palestinian people. In the Oslo Accords, the PLO recognizes Israel's right to exist and Yassar Arafat is recognized as the leader.

Mamluk & Ottoman Jerusalem

Under the Mamluk phenomenon (a movement of slaves and people with little control with the symbolic purpose of defending Jerusalem), Jerusalem became a center for religion. Simultaneously, Jerusalem was politically and militarily insignificant. Under Mamluk, there was many building projects that built schools, hospices, and hostels. Mamluk architecture was domed with decorative techniques (muqarnas) inside. One of the famous schools built was the Al-Madrasa al-Ashrafiyya, a Qur'anic school that demonstrates the beauty of Mamluk architecture. In addition, charitable foundations were made on the Temple Mount, referred to as the Haram. Finally, during this time the Jewish Quarter continued to grow and Kabbalah (or Jewish mysticism) was developed in the absence of the physical temple.

In 1516, Jerusalem fell into the control of the Ottoman Empire. Selim I defeated the Maluks and established the "first qiblah" or direction of prayer. The Ottoman administration was known for a strong centralized government with poweful rulers. One of the most notable rulers was Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, who worked on many public works, including rebuilding walls and an extensive campaign to refurbish the Haram. In addition, Jewish refugees were encouraged to settle in Jerusalem to restore the city and its population, which began to rapidly increase. Finally, the Western Wall was given to the Jews by Suleiman as a place of prayer that soon began to attract myths regarding its origin and significance. Saladin's efforts allowed the Jews to resettle and begin to establish "Zionism".

Crusader Jerusalem

The Crusades were considered "holy wars" which mostly included battles between Roman Catholic forces and Muslims. It also heavily influenced a re-capture of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Islamic rule. The main catalyst behind the Crusades was the calling of Pope Urban II to the Christian public to spread Christianity and defend their faith in 1095. In addition, Christianity's popularity and growth was being challenged by the Muslims. The first crusade was mostly a band of ill-prepared peasants who were ultimately slaughtered by the Muslims. The nobles and wealthier population waited in order to purchase the necessary supplies and plan accordingly. The 1st Crusade was successful in conquering Jerusalem under Godfrey de Bouillon, deemed "King of Jerusalem." The 2nd Crusade was preached by St. Bernard at Vezelay in 1147. Finally, on July 4, 1187 Salah ad-Din traps the Crusaders at the Horns of Hattin.

During this period, many new churches were built in Jerusalem and various quarters of Jerusalem (the Patriarch's quarter, the Templar's quarter, the Syrian quarter, and the Armenian quarter) were established. Maps found from the Crusader period were instrumental in depicting Jerusalem and its quarters at this time. Among one of the most important of the Crusaders' accomplishments was the rebuilding of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Another was the building of the Church of St. Anne (Mary's mother). However, all of the glory of the Crusades quickly came to an end in 1187 CE when Salah ah-Din won the victory at the Horns of Hattins and Abuyyid Jerusalem was established.

Islamic Jerusalem

The Sasanians, the last pre-Islamic Persian Empire, took control of Palestine and Jerusalem 614 BCE. Jews lived in relative peace during this period until the Byzantine period when massacres against Jews began once again. The Byzantine Period ended when the Muslim Caliph Umar took control of Jerusalem in 638 BCE. Jerusalem was the original Mihrab before Muhammad deemed that the direction of prayer should be towards the Kaaba in Mecca. The Umayyad Dynasty, which reigned from 638 to 750 CE, had a tolerance for both Christians and Jews and even allowed their pilgrimages. The Umayyad's built a plethora of monuments in Jerusalem and loved to add their own touch to areas such as the Temple Mount.

Notable among the Islamic structures in Jerusalem is the Dome of the Rock, which was comissioned in 687 CE and finished in 691 CE. The Dome of the Rock is built upon the spot where the prophet Muhammad ascended into heaven. It is also seen as the place of final judgement. Built near by was the Al-Alsqa Mosque, where a prayer made in Al-Asqa is 500 times more powerful than praying elsewhere, and which Westerners can no longer enter.

After the Umayyad's came the Abbasid Dynasty. The Abbasid's attempted to wipe out all of the Umayyad's many accomplishments and installed anti-Christian movements. The Fatimids (from Egypt) followed and under their rule, the treatment of Christians and Jews generally varied depending on the local leader.

Byzantine Jerusalem

With the rise of Jesus and the oncoming wave of Christianity, the Temple slowly became rejected as religion became much more spiritual. In addition, many of the prophets, such as Mark and Luke, began to claim that Jesus was predicting events that later occurred, such as the Temple's destruction. These same prophets claim that Jerusalem was the place where Jesus is said to have been crucified, buried, and resurrected, highlighting its importance to Christianity.

In an attempt to drive out Judaism, the Roman Empire had turned Jerusalem into a "Roman town" and named it Aelia Capitolia. During this same stage, the Roman Empire was divided into a tetrarchy from which Constantine arose as the sole leader of the Roman Empire. Constantine was an avid follower of Christianity and released the Edict of Milan which legalized Christianity. It is arguable that Constantine forever changed Christianity from a pacifist religion to one of aggression. Constantine's mother, Helena, was the first Christian pilgrim and started a religious practice that has lasted until today. In 391 BCE, Theodosius names Christianity the state religion and begins to persecute those who do not believe.

The Madaba Map is a mosaic on a church floor that is seen as very important because it is an accurate map of Jerusalem. One of the things it depicts is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, which became the axis mundi of the Christian religion and the new location of many of the Old Testament events.

Roman / Herodian Jerusalem

In 63 BCE, Pompey conquered Jerusalem and annexed it for Rome. Following Pompey was the rise of Herod the Great and his violent methods of taking control of Galilee, Samaria, and Idumea, and finally Jerusalem in 37 BCE. Herod's knowledge of the Jewish tradition helped him conquer Jerusalem without the Jews rebelling. Herod the Great was known as a very effective yet paranoid and impulsive ruler. He was obsessed with building projects (such as the Western Wall, additions to the Temple Mount, Robinson's Arch, the Hippodrome, and the Herodian) and consistently did things for the good of Rome, not Jerusalem.

Herod still felt strongly that the Jewish religion should be cherished, as was evidenced from the Temple warning to gentiles to not pass into the Temple. There is lots of debate as to whether or not Herod the Great was a good or bad king. He was only half Jewish and constantly worked for the Romans, yet his building projects provided jobs for the citizens of Jerusalem and his policies often favored the Jewish religion over others.

Hasmonean Jerusalem

Hasmonean Jerusalem began with the end of the Hellenistic Period, known as the Maccabean revolt. The Jews regained control of both Jerusalem and the Temple.  In addition, they began to resume sacrificial and religious practices and Jewish rule was finally re-instated for the first time in centuries. Finally, the holiday Hanukkah was celebrated to celebrate the Jewish victory and the wonders of the Jewish faith. This new Jewish self-rule, which claimed to restore the "Golden Age" and rebuild Jerusalem that was more akin to the kingdom of David and Solomon, lasted about a century. Although the leaders claimed to strive for Jewish ideals and Jewish rule, they quickly became corrupt and began to re-instate Hellenization.

Religious purity became a necessity as native populations were exiled and all foreigners were forced to convert. In addition, a new "Temple Tax"clarified the importance of the Jewish religion. The Promise to David was redirected for the Priests. Finally, another conflict between groups arose between the Sadducees vs. the Pharisees which basically encompassed the priests and aristocracy vs. the common priests and leaders. The end of the Hasmoneans came ultimately with the failure of the last Hasmonean leaders and then the Roman Conquest in 63 BCE by Pompey.

Hellenistic Jerusalem

The Hellenistic period is documented by the Apocrypha and by the historian Josephus. The Hellenistic period began with Alexander the Great's conquests and reached the "Palestine" area in about 333 BCE. The High Priest began to oversee administrative and religious affairs. After Alexander's death in 323 BCE, there was a division of the kingdom between the Ptolemies (Egyptians) and the Seleucids (Syrians). During this period, the Greek "polis" or city structure was developed in Jerusalem. The gymnasium became a center of social and intellectual life, largely replacing the Temple. Hellenization affected Jerusalem's architecture, coinage, house wares, language, philosophy, religion, recreation, and much more. Even the Bible is translated into Greek and features some lines of Greek within the passages.

Antiochus III of hte Seleucids took control of Palestine from the Ptolemies and resisted the conservative High Priest Onias III. Similarly, Antiochus IV thoroughly Hellenized Jerusalem, deposes Onias III, and gives the High Priest position to his brother Jason. He also suppressed Jewish resistance and religion by blatantly disobeying their traditions and looting the Temple, among other methods. The Jewish population received Hellenization in different ways. Some welcomed it, while the more conservative Jews resisted. These opinions led to many conflicts and eventually a large revolt broke out. 

Persian Jerusalem

The Persian Period occurred during the first part of the Second Temple Period, or approximately from 539 to 333 BCE with the coming of Alexander the Great. Biblical literature supports the occurrences in this period, as do archaeological excavations. One important prophet from this period is the prophet Ezekiel who while exiled in Babylon predicted a "mobile god", a journey back to Jerusalem, and finally the construction of another temple that would bring utopian messianism. Ezekiel also reintroduces the new throne of God as being mobile and not tied to a specific place like the Ark of the Covenant had been. The disappearance of the Ark as a whole is an unsolved mystery.

An important character from the Persian Period was King Cyrus of the Persian Empire. Cyrus and the Persian Empire wanted to be liked (unlike the Babylonians) so they acted as liberators and allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem (and still pay taxes...) A contradiction of Jewish belief comes when in 2 Isaiah King Cyrus is listed by God as a messiah. This is very controversial because Cyrus is not of the Davidic line. This draws other similarities between Judaism and Zoroastrianism.

The first return of the Jews occurred in late 16th century BCE, as is depicted by the "Yehud" coins in Aramaic. Whether or not the Jewish religion really needed a temple is questionable but construction began on a second temple. The Mt. Gerezimon Neapolis coin, the Elephantine Letter #30, and the Dead Sea Scrolls all allude to the construction of a major temple. However, the new temple ends up paling in comparison to old one due to the poverty and conflict occurring in Persian Jerusalem.

The First Lecture of February

The discussion of the spread of literacy was continued as we studied the Mezad Hashavyah Ostracon, which referenced clothing being stolen from a pledge and how this broke one of the laws referenced in Exodus 22. This growth of literacy leads many scholars to believe that maybe the Bible and its stories did go pretty far back. Another example of literacy was the Torah Amulet which quotes Deuteronomy. These sources, as well as the Bible give oral communication a semi-permanent form. This period is also marked by a decline of the power of the king and a rise in the power or texts.

The "end of Jerusalem" came with the rise of the Babylonian Empire and powerful King Nebuchadnezzar. Jerusalem was exiled and the splendid Josiah was killed by the Pharoh Neco. During this time, the citizens of Jerusalem struggled to deal with the concept that God would allow their sacred leader to be killed. The first Babylonian exile occurred in 579 BCE and the 2nd, more potent Babylonian exile occurred in 586 BCe when Zedekiah attempted to rebel. During this second exile the temple and all its treasures were burned and looted and all the citizens (except the poor) were forced to evacuate Jerusalem. Evidence of the exile appears on tablets located from Babylon that spoke of the Jerusalem royal family. During and after this catastrophe, the Jewish people were forced to re-evaulate their beliefs and decide whether or not God truly existed and why he would break his promise of eternal protection.

Hezekiah and the Golden Age

On of the most notable characteristics of Hezekiah's Golden Age in Jerusalem is the prominence and importance placed on writing. It is said that Hezekiah took the Proverbs of Solomon and had them copied. In addition, there was literature pouring out of the Royal Court and the Book of Proverbs and the Song of Songs were also written down. Libraries in Egypt and Assyria were simultaneously being built and literacy was becoming increasingly more common. The importance of recording stories and events is that it builds up the legend and makes stories more famous.

The importance of literature in religion is tremendous considering Christianity, Judaism, and Islam are all built around sacred texts. Without the literature, the religions would not have any substance. In passages from Isaiah of the Old Testament, a prophesy of a messiah is made. Although some may refer to this as a prophesy predicting the coming of Jesus Christ, it is mainly understood to be referring to Hezekiah. Later in Isaiah 36-39, Jerusalem is proved to be inviolable when the powerful Assyrian King Sennacherib cannot penetrate Jerusalem's walls. This is the ultimate sign that God will protect Jerusalem and his original promise to David has not been broken. The legitimacy behind this claim is proven because Assyrian texts verify that this event indeed happened. After Hezekiah's death, his young son Josiah becomes the King and employs laws from Moses to rule the kingdom. These laws are commonly referred to as Deuteronomy.

Hezekiah's Jerusalem

A "Golden Age"is created when great leaders, such as David and Solomon, die, build great places, create a "United Kingdom", and build a great temple. After the time of David and Solomon and under Solomon's son, Jerusalem's Golden Age ended and the 10 tribes in the North (which became Israel) split for the 2 tribes in the south (which became known as Judah). The Hebrew Bible is written from a southern perspective and can therefore be bias but the North seemed to be jealous of Jerusalem and its temple and so they built alternate worship centers (a similar movement also occurred in the South).

There is evidence of Egyptian presences and invasions in Israel but the growing source of power was undoubtedly the Assyrian Empire. Kings of Israel became vassals to Assyrian Empires and Assyria was largely in control of the entire region. The Assyrians, specifically under Shalmanser III were known to be particularly violent and visual in their punishments and were known to display their power in graphic manners. Under this terror and oppression, Jerusalem began to grow and the population became more urban and industrialized. In addition, Assyria introduced a global economy into the area. Hezekiah, who was seen by some as the "messiah of Jerusalem" began to fortify Jerusalem, build up its water supply and administration, and over all began to prepare to rebel against Assyrian dominance and oppression.

1/20/11 Lecture

We began the lecture by finishing the discussion on David's Jerusalem through the passage 2 Samuel 7 when God promises that the House of Jerusalem will be made eternal. However, many scholars are quick to note that the Babylonians later took over in 527 BCE. Many believe that there is a Davidic king to come, and many people see this as the messiah that Jews believe has yet to come. Next, we listed the five places where Jerusalem derives its sacredness: 1) God chose Jerusalem, 2) The Ark and the Covenant, 3) Creation and the Sabbath, 4) Jerusalem and Mt. Moriah, and 50 Melchizedek's Salem and Jerusalem. All of the above build the tradition of Jerusalem.

Next, David's son, Solomon and his Jerusalem were discussed. Solomon's Prayer of Dedication describes a place for God to dwell forever and a place for the ark. During this prayer, it was still a tradition for a deity to dwell in a temple, a tradition that no longer lasts. As far as Solomon's character goes, King Solomon was seen as being very wise, known to ride a donkey, understood the importance of water, as is rumored to have written the Book of Proverbs. There is only evidence in Biblical literature regarding the existence of David, Solomon, and his temple yet other temples in the Near East (such as 'Ain Dara and Tel Ta'yinat) provide comparative evidence that a temple such as the one described may truly have existed.

1/18/11 Lecture

Today we continued one of the major speculations discussed in the previous lecture regarding the Tel Dan Inscription. The Tel Dan Inscription is famous because it discussed the House of David. The existence of David, his reign, personality, morals, and life are very ambiguous and somewhat controversial. Professor Cargill was quick to note that this mention does not necessarily mean that he existed but that somebody was referred to as being in the House of David. There are also scholars who doubt that the Tel Dan Inscription is legitimate and some think it is fake. We also began to speculate over whether or not Warren's Shaft was engineered or whether it occurs naturally.

Next, we discussed the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark of the Covenant was considered a shrine to God and  was rumored to possess the Ten Commandments and plans for the temple to be built that was supposed to be built for the Ark. In addition, possession of the Ark was rumored to win battles, possess the presence of God and act as a portable "Axis Mundi." According to the Bible, God requested that David build a temple for the Ark and instead built himself a palace. The subsequent temple was then founded during the reign of Solomon, son of David. This officially brought the Ark to Jerusalem.

Caanite Jerusalem

Today in lecture we discussed the ambiguity that surrounds Jerusalem's history pre and even in bible writings. The earliest settlement in Jerusalem most likely existed during the Chalcolithic Period and there has been a continuous settlement until today. Some of the main settlement factors that attracted civilization included water (the Gihon Spring), agriculture (Emek Refa'im), and communication and trade through the Watershed Highway. Some of the earliest non-biblical references to Jerusalem occurred during the Bronze Age. Records include the Execration Text, fortifications, and the Amarna Letters.

The earliest biblical references include Joshua and Judges which blatantly contradict each other when describing the existence of the Jebusites and whether or not they they were murdered. There is also ambiguity surrounding how the Israelites arrived in Jerusalem. Theories include conquest, immigration, and a Caanite-mixed ethnic origin. We continued to discuss David's Jerusalem, who David was, and the mystery surrounding David, his existence, and whether or not he was he was a good man.

Lecture #2 1/11/11

Today during lecture we further expanded upon the characteristics that define a sacred space and the elements that might help us understand why Jerusalem is viewed as such a sacred city. We continued the discussion on how and why a sacred place should be constructed. Specifically, Professor Cargill deemed that a sacred space must be founded with a story or belief behind it. For example, Mesopotamian Temples were built under the belief of the Babylonian creation story and the belief that the architectural plans were lowered from heaven. Due to this divine message, the plans and appearance of these structures could not be contested.
Next we discussed the importance of consecration and the necessity to deem a place as sacred through stories and biblical references. These stories and references attract attention (although they may not all be true). For example, specific language in the book of Genesis is used to portray Jerusalem's importance. Genesis 14:17-20 states "And King Melchizedek of Salem brought out bread and wine; he was the priest of God Most High. " This reference to "Salem" was probably used by many when constructing Jerusalem's consecration. Finally, we learned how sacred space was expanded upon to create a sacred time, the Sabbath. The Sabbath was important because sacred spaces were destroyed, leaving the Jewish people the option to still believe. Due to all this construction and consecration, Jerusalem soon became the Axis Mundi or "Center of the World". This was verified further by more biblical references such as the Cosmic Mountain and the Place of the Underworld.

Jerusalem as a Sacred Place

What elements and characteristics define sacred places? Mircea Eliade writes in the The Sacred and the Profane that "Man becomes aware of the sacred because it manifests itself, shows itself, as something wholly different from the profane." (p.11) So what characteristics make Jerusalem, arguably the most sacred location in the world, wholly different? One characteristic is definitely its geographic features. Jerusalem is located between the Mediterranean Sea and the desert. In addition, Jerusalem is a central meeting of three continents (Europe, Africa, and Asia). Communication routes, such as the Via Maris and the King's Highway help to make places such as Jerusalem more sacred. Another defining element is Jerusalem's topography. It's valleys (the Kidron Valley, the Hinnon Valley, and the Tyropean Valley) as well as the surrounding mountains were strategic military defensive techniques and helped foster prosperity.

One of the most important characteristics of almost every sacred location is water. Water is a precious resource which is vital to life and also to the survival of a civilization.  Water's rarity in Jerusalem and the Middle East is evident in numerous passages such as those from Genesis 2, Ezekiel 47, Revelation, and the Quran. As soon as Jerusalem solved the water crisis and dug tunnels to direct the water, civilization blossomed. A final important characteristic of a sacred space is the necessity to explain a phenomenon. Jerusalem's most prominent example of this sensation of the Dome of the Rock, where Islamic tradition believes that Muhammad ascended into heaven. Accounts such as these heavily increase the sacredness of a place.